Information On Black people

pp-move-indef}} The term black people usually refers to a Race (classification of human beings) of humans with Human skin color that range from light brown to nearly black. According to a recent scientific study, human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations.Human skin color diversity is highest or sub-Saharan African populations. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11126724 NIH.gov] It is also used to categorize a number of diverse populations together based on historical and prehistorical ancestral relationships. Some definitions of the term include only people of relatively recent Sub Saharan Africa descent (see African diaspora . Among the members of this group, brown skin is most often accompanied by the expression of natural Afro-textured hair Other definitions of the term "black people" extend to other populations characterized by dark skin, including some indigenous to Oceania and Southeast Asia Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesian and Papuan , the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula the Aeta people of Luzon and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) Retrieved April 13, 2007, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/black Dictionary.com website]

Physiological traits

Dark skin

File:Unlabeled Renatto Luschan Skin color map.png skin color distribution in the world based on Von Luschan's chromatic scale ]] File:Sub-Saharan-Africa.png The evolution of dark skin is linked intrinsically to the loss of body hair in humans. By 1.2 million years ago, all people having descendants today had the same receptor protein of todays Africans; their skin was dark, and the intense sun killed off the progeny with any lighter skin that resulted from mutational variation in the receptor protein.lt;/ref> This is significantly earlier than the speciation of [[Homo sapiens]]from [[Homo erectus]]some 250,000 years ago. Skin cancer as a result of ultraviolet radiation causing mutations in the skin is less common among people with dark skin than it is among those with light skin.lt;/ref>lt;/ref> Furthermore, dark skin prevents an essential B vitamin, folate from being destroyed. Therefore, in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be healthier and more likely to reproduce than a person with light skin. White people Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this expectation.lt;/ref> Conversely, as dark skin prevents sunlight from penetrating the skin it hinders the production of vitamin D Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low vitamin D levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. White people of Europe, who have low levels of melanin naturally have an almost colorless skin pigmentation, especially when Sun tanning This low level of pigmentation allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The loss of melanin in white people is now thought to have been caused by a mutation in just one letter out of 3.1 billion letters of DNA.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728_pf.html "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin"]. [[Washington Post]]

Hair

The texture of hair in people of Sub-Saharan African ancestry is noticeably different from that of Eurasian populations, as was already noted by Herodotus who described the peoples of Ancient Libya (the "western Ethiopians") as wooly-haired Such "natural afro-hair texture is denser than its straight counterparts. Due to this, it is often referred to as thick, bushy, or woolly. For several reasons, possibly including its relatively flat cross section (among other factorsFranbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and HairE. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007), this hair type conveys a dry or matte appearance.Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day (St. Martins Press: 2008), p.184Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care (CRC Press: 1997), p.237 It is also very coarse, and its unique shape renders it very prone to breakage when combed or brushed. The specific characteristics of the natural afro-hair form are unique among all mammals.Dubious|dateJuly 2009}}Ethnic Skin and HairE. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007 The texture likely predates the evolution of dark skin It evolved when, as pre-human Australopithecines lost most of their fur to enable perspiration, the need to protect the newly exposed pale skin underneath this body hair was crucial (seeIyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep 7(3), pages 188–194. 1998lt;/ref> in light of Rogers et al., 2004 and Harding et al., 2000). The trait ceased to be essential to survival at the equator upon the evolution of hairless dark skin. Yet it has continued to be expressed vestigially among most Melanesians, Andaman Islanders, and sub-Saharan Africans.

Sub-Saharan Africa

File:Albino boy tanzania.jpg son from Tanzania ]] Sub-Saharan Africa is a common, if imprecise term that encompasses African countries located south of the Sahara Desert. It is commonly used to differentiate the region culturally, ecologically, politically and, more controversially, Race (classification of human beings) from North Africa which has historically been part of the Mediterranean sphere. Because the indigenous people of this region are primarily dark-skinned, it is alternatively called "Black Africa".lt;/ref> Some criticize the use of the term, because, having become in many quarters synonymous with Black Africa it can leave the mistaken impression that there are not indigenous Black populations in North Africa. Furthermore, the Sahara cuts across countries such as Mauritania Mali Niger Chad and Sudan leaving some parts of them in North Africa and some in sub-Saharan Africa. Owen 'Alik Shahadah argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa has racist overtones: However, some Black Africans prefer to be culturally distinguished from those who live in the north of the continent.lt;/ref>

Cultural ideas of a black race

South Africa

Image:San tribesman.jpg man, an ethnic group in South Africa.]] In South Africa during the History of South Africa in the apartheid era the population was classified into four groups: Black White [[Asia]]n(mostly India ), and [[Coloured]] The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu peoples Khoisan and European ethnic groups descent (with some Cape Malays ancestry, especially in the Western Cape . The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the Population Registration Act to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a persons physical appearance whether a person was to be considered Colored or Black, the "pencil test" was employed. This involved inserting a pencil in a persons hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck.lt;/ref> During the apartheid era, those classed as Coloured were oppressed and discriminated against. However, they did have limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as Black. In the post-apartheid era the governments policies of affirmative action have favored Blacks over Coloureds. Some South Africans categorized as Black openly state that Coloureds did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. The popular saying by Coloured South Africans to illustrate this dilemma is: Other than by appearance, Coloureds can be distinguished from Blacks by language. Most speak Afrikaans or English as a first language as opposed to Bantu languages such as Zulu language or Xhosa They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names.lt;/ref> In 2008, the High Court in South Africa has ruled that Chinese South Africans are to be reclassified as Black people.http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4168245.ece We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese], The Times

In the Middle East

Arab world

Black African and Near East rn peoples have interacted since prehistoric times.http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId70522 Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance]http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6510675.stm Remembering East African slave raids] Some historians estimate that as many as 14 million black slaves crossed the Red Sea Indian Ocean and Sahara Desert in the Arab slave trade from 650 to 1900 CE.http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-85410331.html The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and its not over]http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannicas Guide to Black History] The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard who coerced the country into submission.http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.]http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1276/Abid-al-Bukhari ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization)]. Encyclopædia Britannica. File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962."http://www.thedailystar.net/2004/07/27/d40727150297.htm Slaves in Saudi]". Naeem Mohaiemen. The Daily Star (Bangladesh) July 27, 2004.]] The Afro-Asiatic languages which include Semitic languages such as Arabic and Hebrew are believed by some scholars to have originated in Ethiopia http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici0011-3204%28199802%2939%3A1%3C139%3ATALPAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J&sizeLARGE&originJSTOR-enlargePage The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian?] Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR) This is because the region has very diverse language groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin. In more recent times, about 1000 CE, interactions between black people and Arabs resulted in the incorporation of extensive Arabic vocabulary into Swahili language which became a useful [[lingua franca]]for merchants. Some of this linguistic exchange occurred as part of the slave trade; the history of Islam and slavery shows that the Madh'hab traditionally accepted the institution of slavery Lewis 1994, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html Ch.1] As a result, Arab influence spread along the east coast of Africa and to some extent into the interior (see East Africa . Timbuktu was a trading outpost that linked west Africa with Berber people Arab, and Jewish traders throughout the Arab World As a result of these interactions many Arab people in the Middle East have black ancestry and many black people on the east coast of Africa and along the Sahara have Arab ancestry.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid1180338 Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations] According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazils University of the state of Bahia, Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble Latin America He claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.lt;/ref> Moore also claims that a film about President of Egypt Anwar Sadat had to be canceled when Sadat discovered that an African-American had been cast to play him. In fact, the 1983 television movie Sadat starring Louis Gossett, Jr. was not canceled. The government of Egypt refused to let the drama air in Egypt, partially on the grounds of the casting of Gossett.http://www.hollywood.com/celebrity/Louis_Gossett_Jr/192411 Louis Gosset Jr.] Hollywood.com The objections, however, did not come from Sadat, who had been assassinated two years earlier. Sadats mother was a black Sudan se woman and his father was a lighter-skinned Egyptians In response to an advertisement for an acting position he remarked, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".http://books.google.com/books?idPoW4pO4q9VwC&printsecfrontcover#PPP1,M1 Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone] pages 5–7,31 ISBN 0-7146-3487-5 Fathia Nkrumah was another Egyptian with ties to Black Africa. She was the late wife of Ghana an revolutionary Kwame Nkrumah whose marriage was seen as helping plant the seeds of cooperation between Egypt and other African countries as they struggled for independence from European colonization, which in turn helped advance the formation of the African Union http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid289&adate04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid140&page1 African Union Summit] In general, Arabs had a more positive view of black women than black men, even if the women were of slave origin. More black women were enslaved than men, and, because the Qur'an was interpreted to permit Ma malakat aymanukum and sex outside of marriage,See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Maududi Vol. 2 pp. 112–113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses Vol. 3, notes 7–1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic PublicationsTafsir ibn Kathir 4:24 many mixed race children resulted. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab captors child, she became “umm walad” or “mother of a child”, a status that granted her privileged rights. The child would have prospered from the wealth of the father and been given rights of inheritance.lt;/ref> Because of patrilineality the children were born free and sometimes even became successors to their ruling fathers, as was the case with Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur (whose mother was a Fulani concubine), who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. Such tolerance, however, was not extended to wholly black persons, even when technically "free," and the notion that to be black meant to be a slave became a common belief.lt;/ref> The term "Abd (Arabic) , () "slave," remains a common term for black people in the Middle East, often though not always derogatory.lt;/ref>

Turkey

Beginning several centuries ago, a number of sub-Saharan Africans were brought by slave traders during the Ottoman Empire to plantations between Antalya Province and Istanbul in modern-day Turkey http://www.afro-turk.org/index.php/ayvalikin-renkli-dernegi Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008] Some of their descendants remain, mixed with the rest of the population in these areas, and many migrated to larger cities. Some came from the island of Crete following the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923.http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?loaddetay&link141522 Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Todays Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008]

Israel

Image:falasha makstyle.jpg ] There are some 120,000 Ethiopian Jews living in Israel.http://www.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2009n/11_09_252b.pdf The Ethiopian Population In Israel]. Reuters. July 16, 2009. Most Ethiopians came during the 1980s and 1990s."http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0902/p06s01-wome.html Why Jews see racism in Israel]". Csmonitor.com. September 1, 2009. Over 16,000 African asylum seekers have entered Israel in recent years.http://www.abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id8308386 Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma]. ABC News. August 12, 2009. In addition, Israel is home to over 5,000 members of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem movement who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood the Negev town of Dimona Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel most of then converts from the UK, Canada, and the United States. Thousands of mixed-race individuals with non-black Jewish relatives also live in Israel. About 150,000 blacks live in Israel, this amounts to just over 2% of the nations population.

In the Americas

Approximately 12 million Africans were shipped to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade from 1492 to 1888. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million,http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/galci/Archive.htm "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 ], Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative February 4, 2006 most of whom live in the United States the Caribbean and Latin America including Brazil Many have a multiracial background of African, Amerindian European and Asian ancestry. The various regions developed complex social conventions with which their multi-ethnic populations were classified.

United States

In the first 200 years that black people had been in the United States they commonly referred to themselves as Africans. In Africa, people primarily identified themselves by ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals would be Ashanti Igbo people Kongo people or Wolof people But when Africans were brought to the Americas they were forced to give up their ethnic affiliations for fear of uprisings. The result was the Africans had to intermingle with other Africans from different ethnic groups. This is significant as Africans came from a vast geographic region, the West Africa coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south east coast such as Mozambique A new identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the Black church and AAVE This new identity was now based on skin color and African ancestry rather than any one ethnic group.lt;/ref> In March 1807, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared Abolition of the Slave Trade Act as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect January 1, 1808, the earliest date on which United States Congress had the power to do so under wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 9 of the United States Constitution ) By that time, the majority of black people were U.S.-born, so use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared its continued use would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835 black leaders called upon black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "Negro or "Colored American". A few institutions however elected to keep their historical names such as African Methodist Episcopal Church "Negro" and "colored" remained the popular terms until the late 1960s.http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1594200831/ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64] The term blackwas used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "I Have a Dream speech,Dead link|dateAugust 2009}} Martin Luther King, Jr. uses the terms Negro15 times and black4 times. Each time he uses blackit is in parallel construction with white(e.g., black men and white men).lt;/ref> With the successes of the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968) a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of Negro blackwas promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "Black Power by Kwame Toure (Stokely Carmichael and the release of James Browns song "Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud . In 1988 Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use the term African American because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some such as Maulana Karenga and Owen Alik Shahadah argue African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates geography and historical origin. Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.lt;/ref>lt;!-- The cited article actually seems to argue the opposite of what were using it for --> Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it is associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use.lt;/ref> The appropriateness of the term "African American" is further confused, however, by increases in African immigrants from African immigration to the United States the Caribbean and Latin America. The more recent African immigrants may sometimes view themselves, and be viewed, as culturally distinct from native descendants of African slaves.lt;/ref> The Race (United States Census) says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan Nigerian or Haiti n. However, the Census Bureau notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.http://www.census.gov/mso/www/c2000basics/00Basics.pdf 2000 US Census basics] A considerable portion of the U.S. population identified as blackactually have some Indigenous peoples of the Americas or European American ancestry. For instance, genetic studies of African American people show an ancestry that is on average 17–18% European.http://www.isteve.com/2002_How_White_Are_Blacks.htm How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer]

One drop rule

Historically, the United States used a [[colloquial]] term, the ''[[one-drop rule]]'', to designate a black person as any person with any known African ancestry.{{cite web| last James| first

F. Davis| title Who is Black? One Nations Definition| urlhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html| publisher PBS } Legally the definition varied from state to state. Thomas Jefferson had slaves who were legally white (less than 25% Black) and legally slaves (mother was a slave). Outside of the US, some other countries have adopted the practice, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one drop "rule" applies varies from country to country. The one drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slavesClarence Page http://www.pbs.org/newshour/essays/page_5-1.html A Credit to His Races], [[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]] May 1, 1997. and been maintained as an attempt to keep the white race pure.lt;/ref> One of the results of the one drop rule was uniting the African American community and preserving an African identity. Some of the most prominent civil rights activists were multiracial, and advocated equality for all.

Blackness

[[File:Official portrait of Barack Obama.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Barack Obama]], the first Black President of the [[United States]], was, throughout his campaign, criticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".{{cite news |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf |title

emarks of Senator Barack Obama: A More Perfect Union (transcript) |accessdate2008-06-27 |date2008-03-18 |publisherBBC News|formatpdf |quoteThis is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well. |pagesp2 }} See also: http://www.youtube.com/watch?vpWe7wTVbLUU video]lt;/ref>lt;/ref>]]The concept of Blackness (African-American subculture) in the United States has been describedas the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream African American culture and values. To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about skin color or tone but more about culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with "acting white where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans, with regard to fashion dialect taste in music lt;/ref> and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of Black youth, academic achievement.Ogbu, J. "Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement" Erlbaum Associates Press. Mahwah, NJ. 2003. The notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people. Toni Morrison once described Bill Clinton as the first black president,lt;/ref> because of his warm relations with African Americans, his poor upbringing and also because he is a jazz musician. Christopher Hitchens was offended by the notion of Clinton as the first black president noting "we can still define blackness by the following symptoms: alcoholic mothers, under-the-bridge habits...the tendency to sexual predation and shameless perjury about the same"No One Left to Lie to by Christopher Hitchens, 1999, pg 47 Some black activists were also offended, claiming Clinton used his knowledge of black culture to exploit black people like no other president beforelt;/ref> for political gain, while not serving black interests. They note his lack of action during the Rwanda genocide lt;ref>lt;/ref> and his welfare reform which some claim led to the worst child poverty since the 1960slt;/ref> along with the fact that the number of black people in jail increased during his administration.lt;/ref> The question of blackness also arose in Democrat Barack Obama s United States presidential election, 2008 Commentators have questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first black President of the United States is black enough, as his mother was white American and his father was a black Kenyan immigrant. Obama refers to himself interchangeably as black and African American lt;/ref>

Brazil

File:Filhas-de-santo moradoras do terreiro.jpeg ceremony.]] The topic of race in Brazil is a complex and diverse one.A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between a pure black and a very light mulatto over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.lt;/ref> There is some disagreement among scholars over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that upward mobility and education results in reclassification of individuals into lighter skinned categories. The popular claim is that in Brazil poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree arguing that whitening of ones social status may be open to people of mixed race, but a typically black person will consistently be identified as black regardless of wealth or social status.lt;/ref>lt;/ref>

Statistics

{{See also|Race and genetics#Admixture in Latin America}} {| class"wikitable" border"1" style

float: right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;" |+Demographics of Brazil |- ! Year!! White !! Pardo!! Black |- | 1835 | 24.4% || 18.2%||51.4% |- | 2000 | 53.7% ||38.5%||6.2% |} From the year 1500 to 1850 an estimated 3.5 million Africans were forcibly shipped to Brazil. An estimated 80 million Brazilians, almost half the population, are at least in part descendants of these Africans. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-descendants outside of Africa. In contrast to the US there were no segregation or anti-miscegenation laws in Brazil and as a result intermarriage has affected a large majority of the Brazilian population. Even much of the white population has either African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census 54% identified themselves as white, 6.2% identified themselves as black and 39.5% identified themselves as Pardo (brown)- a broad multiracial category.Dead link|dateAugust 2009}} A philosophy of Racial whitening emerged in Brazil in the 19th century. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835 half the population was black, one fifth was Pardo (brown) and one fourth white. By 2000 the black population had fallen to only 6.2% and the Pardo had increased to 40% and white to 55%. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multiracial category by intermarriage. A recent study found that at least 29% of the middle class white Brazilian population had some recent African ancestry.http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2007/vol2-6/gmr0330_full_text.htm Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians]

Race relations in Brazil

Because of the ideology of [[miscegenation]], Brazil has avoided the polarization of society into black and white. The bitter and sometimes violent racial tensions that divide the US are notably absent in Brazil. However the philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn criticism from some quarters. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line, with blacks and other non-whites accounting for 70 percent of the poor.{{cite web| last Barrolle| first Melvin Kadiri| title

African Americans in Brazil| publisher New America Media| urlhttp://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6| accessdate2009-08-05}} In the US, black people earn 75% of what white people earn.In Brazil, non-whites earn less than 50% of what whites earn. Some have posited that Brazil does in fact practice the one drop rule when social economic factors are considered. This is because the gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and non-whites. Other factors such as illiteracy and education level show the same patterns.lt;/ref> Unlike in the US where African Americans were united in the civil rights struggle, in Brazil the philosophy of whitening has helped divide blacks from other non-whites and prevented a more active civil rights movement. Though Afro-Brazilians make up half the population there are very few black politicians. The city of Salvador, Bahia for instance is 80% Afro-Brazilian but has never had a black mayor. Critics indicate that US cities that have a black majority, such as Detroit and New Orleans have never had white mayors since first electing black mayors in the 1970s.Charles Whitaker, "http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_n4_v46/ai_9329550/pg_3 Blacks in Brazil: The Myth and the Reality]," [[Ebony (magazine)|Ebony]] February 1991 Non-white people also have limited media visibility. The Latin American media, in particular the Brazilian media, has been accused of hiding its black and indigenous population. For example the telenovelas or Soap Opera are said to be a hotbed of white, largely blonde and blue/green-eyed actors who resemble Scandinavia s or other northern Europeans more than they resemble the typical whites of Brazil, who are mostly of Southern European descent.http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3069253/site/newsweek/%5B/url%5D Soap operas on Latin TV are lily white]http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagenamearticle&node&contentIdA19009-2000Aug1¬Foundtrue The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV]http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/08/19/pride_or_prejudice/ Skin tone consciousness in Asian and Latin American populations] These patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some to advocate for the use of the Portuguese term negro to encompass non-whites so as to renew a black consciousness and identity, in effect an African descent rule.http://www.newamerica.net/publications/articles/2006/brazil_separates_into_a_world_of_black_and_white Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White], Los Angeles Times September 3, 2006

In Asia and Australasia

China

There was a colony of Arab merchants in Guangzhou that received slaves from East Africa Serge Bilé cites a 12th century text which tells us that most well-to-do families in Canton had black slaves whom they regarded as savages and demons because of their physical appearance.Roland Oliver, Africa in the Iron Age: c.500 BC-1400 AD (Cambridge University Press: 1975) Each Portuguese family in Macau had an average of five or six black male slaves (without counting those slaves wives and children). Many slaves fled from their masters in Macau and came into China, wrote Matteo Ricci indenturing themselves there to local Chinese military commanders.The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci(p. 192), Jonathan Spence Zheng Zhilong and his son Koxinga had the "black guard" most of whom were black Africans who were former Portuguese slaves.Coxinga and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty by Jonathan Clements (Sutton, 2005), pp. 79–80 lt;/ref> Based on a report in the Guangzhou Daily there might be as many as 100,000 Africans in Guangzhou People's Republic of China a number that the newspaper reports has been increasing at an annual rate of 30 to 40% since 2003.http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id690 China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration]. By Malia Politzer. Migration Information Source August 2008http://www.chinatravel.net/forum/Guangzhou-Guangzhou-Chocolate-City-Africans-Seek-Their-Dreams-in-China/1499.html Guangzhou "Chocolate City": Africans Seek Their Dreams in China]. 18-Dec-2008. File:Great Andamanese couple.jpg couple of the Andaman Islands ] File:Inde bondo 8593a.jpg girl on her way to the market in India ]]

India and Southeast Asia

See also Indo-African In India exists the Great Andamanese people who are considered Adivasis as their ancestors are among the first groups to inhabit India region.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4314267.stm Extinction threat for Andaman natives]. BBC News.March 5, 2005. The Great Andamanese are 1 of 5 black ethnic groups native to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands The other four are the Jangil Jarawa (Andaman Islands) Onge people and Sentinelese In South there are also several communities of Black African descent, such as the Sheedi or specifically the Siddis of Karnataka who descend from East African slaves sold as far away as China Other ethnic groups in India with dark skin and/or broad facial feature which could arguable be considered as Black are the Bonda people Gondi people Bhil Kondha http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/dongria Dongria Kondha Survival International] There are also the Vedda people of Sri Lanka

Melanesia

File:Ati woman.jpg woman of the Philippines The Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of Southeast Asia ]] File:Indigenous-fiji-young-man.jpg ]] Image:Vanuatu blonde.jpg Vanuatu Pacific Islander boy.http://news.softpedia.com/news/Naturally-Blonde-Blacks-48181.shtml Naturally blonde blacks]]] There are several groups of dark-skinned people who live in various parts of Asia Australia and Oceania who sometimes are referred to as black people. They include the Indigenous Australians the Melanesians (now divided into Austronesian speaking populations and Papuan , and including the great genetic diversity of New Guinea , the Semang people of the Malay peninsula the Aeta people of Luzon the Ati (tribe) of Panay http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter6/text6.htm Chapter 6: The Negrito Race] indigenous first nation Fijians and various indigenous peoples sometimes collectively known as Negritos By their external physical appearance (phenotype such people resemble Black Africans with dark skin and sometimes tightly coiled hair. There have been suggestions of a Black African origin. However, in the case of the Andamanese people, a study conducted by the National Center for Biotechnology Information indicated that the Andamanese people possessed closer affinities with the Southeast Asian population than with the Black African population.lt;/ref>

In Europe

File:La vilette hiphop 1985.jpg ]

United Kingdom

According to the Office for National Statistics as of the 2001 census, there are over a million black people in the United Kingdom 1% of the total population describe themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id273 National Statistics Online] Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II the first symbolic movement was those who came on the ship the [[Empire Windrush]] The preferred official umbrella term is "black and minority ethnic" (BME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the Southall Black Sisters which started with a mainly British Asian constituency.

France

France is an ethnically diverse nation, with about 2.5 – 5 million black people.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12396-2005Apr23.html Europes Minority Politicians in Short Supply]. The Washington Post. April 24, 2005.http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0112/p01s04-woeu.html In officially colorblind France, blacks have a dream – and now a lobby]. Csmonitor.com. January 12, 2007.

Italy

Italy is an ethnically diverse nation with about 755,000 – 1.600.000 million black people.

Spain

See: *Moors *Spanish Inquisition *Spanish Empire *Immigration to Spain

Balkans

Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community – descendent of the Slavery (Ottoman Empire) that had flourished here.http://www.cyber-adventures.com/yugo.html Yugoslavia – Montenegro and Kosovo – The Next Conflict?] As a consequence of the slave trade and privateer activity, a considerable number of Ulcinj inhabitants until 1878 were black.http://www.visit-montenegro.com/cities-ulcinj-h.htm ULCINJ – HISTORY] The Military of the Ottoman Empire counted thousands of Black African soldiers in its ranks. The army sent to Balkans during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18 included 24,000 men from Africa.http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/russia2.html African Slave Trade in Russia], By Dieudonne Gnammankou in La Channe et le lien, Doudou Diene, (id.) Paris, Editions UNESCO, 1988

Eastern Europe

As African states decolonisation in the 1960s, the Soviet Union offered them the chance to study in Russia; over 40 years, 400,000 African students came, and many settled there.http://www.mediarights.org/film/black_russians MediaRights: Film: Black Russians]http://www.africana.ru/Golden/info/black_russians_project_engl.htm Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English] This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the Eastern bloc

Russia

See also: [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=ru&u=http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259D%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D1%258B_%25D0%25B8_%25D0%25BC%25D1%2583%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D1%2582%25D1%258B_%25D0%25B2_%25D0%25A0%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D1%2581%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B8&ei=VA4xS7n_C4a1tgfG8LyBCQ&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CA8Q7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dhttp://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2525D0%25259D%2525D0%2525B5%2525D0%2525B3%2525D1%252580%2525D1%25258B_%2525D0%2525B8_%2525D0%2525BC%2525D1%252583%2525D0%2525BB%2525D0%2525B0%2525D1%252582%2525D1%25258B_%2525D0%2525B2_%2525D0%2525A0%2525D0%2525BE%2525D1%252581%2525D1%252581%2525D0%2525B8%2525D0%2525B8%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26hs%3DFYU Negroid and mulatto people of Russia] translated from Russian to English Wikipedia. A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye, and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia . Romani people Georgians and Tatar fall into this category.The Unmaking of Soviet Life: Everyday Economies After SocialismBy Caroline Humphrey Cornell University 2002 p36–37 Those referred to as "black" are from the Post-Soviet states predominantly peoples of the Caucasus e.g. Chechens Lisa Taylor, http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/63/333.html Emergency—Explosion of State and Popular Racism follows Moscow Blasts], International Solidarity with Workers in Russia (ISWoR), 13 September 1999. Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people , in Russian language – and List of dialects of the English language – it only refers to the Caucasus not European people in general.

Debates on race

Hamitic race

According to some historians, the tale in Curse of Ham in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28–117 According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noahs three sons repopulating the Earth after the Noah's Flood and giving rise to three separate races.lt;/ref> The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20–27, which deals with the sons of Noah however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Sons of Noah but on Canaan one of Hams sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc.) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.lt;/ref>lt;/ref> The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noahs sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define black people, nor assign them to racial hierarchies. Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that black people were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.Felicia R. Lee, [http://www.racematters.org/noahscurseslaverysrationale.htm Noahs Curse Is Slavery Rationale], Racematters.org, November 1, 2003 According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College: {{quote|in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18–27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as Gods reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.}} Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such [[racist]] interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like [[Philo]] and [[Origen of Alexandria]], who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian, Princeton University Press ===In Afrocentrism=== {{Main|Afrocentrism|Ancient Egyptian race controversy}} [[File:Egyptian races.jpg|thumb|1820 drawing of a [[Book of Gates]] fresco of the tomb of [[Seti I]], depicting (from left): [[Libya]]n, [[Nubian]], [[Asian people|Asiatic]], [[Egyptians]].]] A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the [[ancient Egypt]]ians was sparked as part of the [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentric]] debate.[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/afrocent_roth.html Building bridges to Afrocentrism] [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentrist]] scholars such as [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] contend that [[ancient Egypt]] was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is [[Herodotus]], who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."{{cite web |title=Huge Ancient Egyptian Photo Gallery| url=http://www.freemaninstitute.com/RTGhistory.htm}} However, Classical scholar [[Frank M. Snowden, Jr.|Frank Snowden, Jr.]] cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.{{cite book | last=Snowden, Jr. | first=Frank M. | editor=Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.) | title=Black Athena Revisited | location=Chapel Hill | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | year=1996 | pages=113–14 | quote=....the Afrocentrists are mistaken in assuming that the terms fri (Africans) and various color adjectives for dark pigmentation as used by Greeks and Romans are always the classical equivalents of Negores or blacks in modern usage.... That the pigmentation of the Egyptians was seen as lighter than that of Ethiopians is also attested by the adjective ubfusucli ("somewhat dark") which Ammianus Marcellinus (22.16.23) chose to describe the Egyptians....}} Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.{{cite book | last=Keita, Boyce | first=Shomarka, A.J.| editor=Theodore Celenko(ed) | title=Egypt in Africa | location=Chapel Hill | publisher=Indianapolis Museum of Art | year=1996 | pages=25–27 | quote=....he descriptions and terms of ancient Greek writers have sometimes been used to comment on Egyptian origins. This is problematic since the ancient writers were not doing population biology. However, we can examine one issue. The Greeks called all groups south of Egypt "Ethiopians." Were the Egyptians more related to any of these "Ethiopians" than to the Greeks? As noted, cranial and limb studies have indicated greater similarity to Somalis, Kushites and Nubians, all "Ethiopians" in ancient Greek terms.....}} Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.{{cite web| title = The Identity Of Ancient| url=http://www.calumet.purdue.edu/mcnair/cynthia_research.pdf|format=PDF}} According to [[Egyptology|Egyptologists]], ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.[http://homelink.cps-k12.org/teachers/filiopa/files/AC383EB269C648AAAA659593B9FC358C.pdf Were the Ancient Egyptians black or white] Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an [[Africoid]] element was evident in ancient Egypt,{{cite video| people = [[Basil Davidson]]| title=The Nile|url=http://www.lincoln.edu/history/his307/davidson/1/dif3.wmv}} which was predominant in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] in the [[First dynasty of Egypt]].Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships, by S.O.Y. Keita, History in Africa, 20: 129–154 (1993){{cite journal | last=Keita | first=S.O.Y. | title=Further studies of crania from ancient northern Africa: an analysis of crania from First Dynasty Egyptian tombs | journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] | year=1992 | month=March | volume=87 | issue= 3 | pages=245–254 | url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110482899/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 | accessdate= 2007-09-23 | quote=The predominant craniometric pattern in the [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] [First Dynasty] royal tombs is "southern" (tropical African variant)... However, lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity... The centroid values of the various upper Egyptian series viewed collectively are seen to vary over time. The general trend from Badari to Nakada times, and then from the Nakadan to the First Dynasty epochs demonstrate change toward the northern-Egyptian centroid value on Function I with similar values on Function 11. This might represent an average change from an Africoid (Keita, 1990) to a northern-Egyptian-Maghreb modal pattern.... This northern modal pattern, which can be called coastal northern African, is noted in general terms to be intermediate, by the centroid scores of Function I, to equatorial African and northern European phenotypes. | doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330870302 | pmid=1562056}}{{Dead link|date=August 2009}} ==See also== {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} * [[African-American]] * [[African diaspora]] * [[Africans]] * [[Afro-Asian]] * [[Afro-Latin American|Afro-Latino]] {{col-3}} * [[Black British]] * [[Black Canadians]] * [[Black Hispanic and Latino Americans]] * [[Black Indians]] * [[Black pride]], [[Black Power]], [[Black nationalism]], [[Black separatism]], [[Black supremacy]] {{col-3}} * [[List of topics related to Black and African people]] * [[Negrito]]s * [[Stereotypes of black people]] * [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] * The Minds of Marginalized Black Men]] (book) {{col-end}} ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|2}} {{Historical definitions of race}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Black People}} [[Category:Black African people| ]] [[Category:Latin American caste system]] [[Category:Race]] [[ar:أسود (شخص)]] [[zh-min-nan:O͘-lâng]] [[cs:Negroidní rasa]] [[de:Schwarzafrikaner]] [[et:Neegrid]] [[es:Negro (persona)]] [[eo:Nigrulo]] [[fa:سیاه‌پوست]] [[fr:Noir (humain)]] [[gl:Raza negra]] [[gan:黑人]] [[ko:흑인]] [[hr:Negroidi]] [[ig:Ndi oji]] [[id:Ras Negroid]] [[he:שחורים]] [[ka:ნეგროიდული რასა]] [[la:Nigrita]] [[lt:Juodaodis]] [[nl:Neger]] [[ja:ネグロイド]] [[no:Den negroide rase]] [[pl:Czarna rasa człowieka]] [[pt:Negros]] [[ru:Негроидная раса]] [[simple:Black people]] [[sk:Negroidná rasa]] [[sl:Črna (negridna) rasa]] [[fi:Negridinen rotu]] [[tr:Zenciler]] [[uk:Негр]] [[ug:قارا تەنلىكلەر]] [[vi:Đại chủng Phi]] [[wuu:黑人]] [[yi:שווארצע]] [[zh-yue:黑人]] [[bat-smg:Negrā]] [[zh:黑人]]
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